Imithombo yefilosofi iyimikhakha kanye amasethi emibono ahleliwe eziye zaqala eminyakeni eminingi emlandweni wefilosofi. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuthi lezi zilawula izenzo zomuntu noma 'indlela aphila ngayo': zithonya ukuqonda kwakhe umhlaba, ukwenza kwakhe izinqumo, ubudlelwano bakhe nabanye, kanye nokuhlola kwakhe lokho akubheka njengokuhle noma okuyiqiniso. Ezimweni eziningi, ukusetshenziswa kwesikole esithile sokucabanga nakho kuncike ku- isiko kanye nomongo lapho umuntu ethuthuka khona.
Ngayinye inesikhathi sayo sokuqala, kanye nombhali noma iqembu lababhali abacabange futhi bacabanga ngalo mbono, lokhu kuyisihluthulelo ku- ukwakheka kwemisingaNakuba kungenzeka ukuthi kunenqwaba yazo futhi njengamanje zinezincazelo ezahlukahlukene, kukhona ezinye eziqamba amanga futhi ezivelele, kokubili ngalokho ezikushoyo kanye nomdali wazo wefilosofi, ububanzi bazo bomlando kanye nomthelela wazo osebenzayo kwezepolitiki, ukuziphatha, inkolo, isayensi noma impilo yansuku zonke.
Elinye iqiniso elithakazelisayo nelibalulekile ukuthi ukunyakaza kwefilosofi kwakuvame ukuvela emaqenjini abacabangi ababebizwa ngokuthi "Izikole zefilosofi"Lokhu kwakungenxa yesidingo sokuhlangana ndawonye ngoba babenezimfanelo ezifanayo futhi bevumelana ngendlela yabo yokucabanga, ukuze bazibonakalise ngaphansi kwegama noma ilebula elibamelelayo, njengamaStoyiku, ama-Epikhuru, amaSophist, amaScholastic, noma ama-Empiricist.
Isibonelo, ku ukunyakaza kwefilosofi kokuKhanyiselwa (ngekhulu le-18), ngokusekelwe ekugqamiseni amandla okucabanga kanye nokuqiniseka entuthukweni yomuntu, umsinga wefilosofi wokuqonda kwanamuhla, owaklanywa nguRené Descartes futhi wachazwa ngokuthi ukungathembi izinzwa ngoba bazibheka njengezizimele futhi ezikhohlisayo; babeka ukucabanga ngaphezu kwazo njengomthombo wolwazi olucacile, oluhlukile, futhi, ngezinga elikhulu, olujwayelekile.
Yiqiniso, kunezikole zokucabanga eziveza okuphambene ngokuphelele nalokho okushiwo ngaphambilini. Esinye isikole sokucabanga esivelele yilesi i-anarchismokuyinto, ngokusho kwababhali abahlukahlukene, eyaqala hhayi nje kuphela ngaphakathi kohlaka lwemibono yokuKhanyiselwa kodwa futhi nasekuguqukeni okukhulu kwezenhlalo nezepolitiki kwasekupheleni kwekhulu le-18, okuhlanganisa I-French RevolutionLesi sahlulelo sisekelwe ekuhleleni kwezenhlalo okukhululekile hhayi kuHulumeni, njengoba abavikeli bawo bengakholelwa emandleni nasekubuseni komuntu oyedwa phezu komunye; futhi bathembekile. abakholelwa ekuqondeni kwabantu nokuthi lokhu kuthinta kanjani intuthuko yabo kanye nekhono labo lokudala izakhiwo zokubambisana ngokuzithandela.
Kamuva, kwaqala ukwakhiwa eminye imigudu yefilosofi, futhi cishe njalo, kuvela eyodwa. umlingani ogxekayoOkungukuthi, omunye umqondo ophikisa noma obuyekeza owangaphambilini. Ngale ndlela, izingxoxo zihlanganiswa ndawonye, zembula izinkolelo, imibuzo, kanye nokungezwani kwengqondo kwabacabangi besikhathi ngasinye.
Ukulandela ukunyakaza kokuKhanyiselwa, isibonelo, iqembu okuhle, okwakusho ngokuyinhloko ukuthi umoya womuntu udlule ezigabeni ezahlukene kwaze kwaba yilapho ufinyelela esigabeni lapho ulwazi olufanele kufanele lusekelwe khona amaqiniso aqinisekisiweOkusho ukuthi, ikakhulukazi benqaba ukuqagela noma okungokoqobo kuphela, babephikisana nezincazelo ezazingenakuhlolwa ngokuhlangenwe nakho, bephikisana ngemibono ngedatha nokubona, bebeka konke okuvivinywayo ngaphezu kokwemfundiso nje.
Lonke lolu hlolojikelele luyisifinyezo esifushane kanye nesingeniso sokunikeza umongo mayelana nokuthi lezi zinhlangano ziyini nokuthi zathuthuka kanjani; noma kunjalo, zingaphezu kwalokho. Ukuziqonda kusenza sibone. indlela izigaba ezinkulu ezakhiwa ngayo esisakusebenzisa nanamuhla: iqiniso, iqiniso, ubulungiswa, inkululeko, ulwazi, injabulo, amandla, noma isithunzi somuntu.
Ziyini ngempela izindlela zefilosofi?
Uma sikhuluma ngemisinga yefilosofi, sibhekisela ku- amaqembu abacabangi ababelana ngezimiso ezithile, izindlela, nezindlela zokuxazulula izinkinga zefilosofi. Akukhona nje kuphela ngemikhuba yobuhlakani, kodwa izinhlelo zokucabanga ezizinzile eziqhubeka isikhathi eside futhi ezicatshangelwayo, ezigxekwayo, noma eziguqulwa yizizukulwane ezizayo.
Le mizila yemicabango ifuna ukuphendula imibuzo efana nale: Umhlaba waba khona kanjani? Ingabe unesiqalo nesiphetho? Silazi kanjani iqiniso? Ingabe lokho esikubonayo kukhona ngempela noma ingabe kuwukuvela kwezingqondo zethu? Yini enquma ukuziphatha kwethu? Ingabe kukhona amaqiniso aphelele noma ingabe konke okuhlobene nomuntu ngamunye kanye namasiko? Kufanele siphile kanjani ukuze sibe nobulungiswa noma sijabule?
Isici esisodwa esivamile ukuthi imisinga eminingi iyazalwa njengokusabela ngokungafani nezinye izindlela zokucabanga ezibhekwa njengezinganele. Isibonelo, i-empiricism ichazwa njengempendulo ebalulekile ku-rationalism; i-existentialism, njengokusabela kumafilosofi angabonakali ngokweqile akhohlwa okuhlangenwe nakho okuqondile komuntu ngamunye; noma umcabango we-postcolonial, njengempendulo emibonweni ye-Eurocentric yomlando nolwazi.
Ukuqonda le nethiwekhi yamathonya, izimpendulo, kanye nokugxekwa kusenza sibone ifilosofi njengento ingxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi namakhulu eminyakalapho ugesi ngamunye uyisiphakamiso sokuqonda kangcono umhlaba nokuphila komuntu, hhayi uhlu olulula lwezemfundo lwamagama nezinsuku.
Okulandelayo, sizohlola izindlela zefilosofi ezivelele kakhulu, ezihlelwe kokubili ngokuqukethwe kwazo (inkolelo-mbono yolwazi, ukuziphatha, ezombusazwe, i-metaphysics) kanye nokuvela kwazo komlando, sihlanganisa izikole eziyinhloko nababhali ababumbe isiko laseNtshonalanga.
Imisinga yefilosofi evelele kakhulu
Amandla
Ubuqambi bavela esikhathini esibizwa ngokuthi inkathi yesimanje futhi buyi- inkolelo-mbono yolwazi okusho ukuthi konke ukufunda kuvela kokuhlangenwe nakho, okunikeza ukuqashelwa ukuqonda kwezinzwa ekudalweni kwemibono. Abasekeli bayo bathi ingqondo yomuntu ekuzalweni ifana "nesileti esingenalutho" nokuthi konke okuqukethwe yingqondo kuvela emibonweni etholakala ngezinzwa.
Umsekeli wakhe obaluleke kakhulu emasikweni akudala kwakunguDavid Hume, owabonisa ngokuningiliziwe ukuthi imibono yethu yembangela, ubuwena, noma into ethile itholakala kanjani ekuhlanganiseni imibono yezinzwa. Eceleni kwakhe, abacabangi abanjengo UJohn Locke y UGeorge Berkeley Baphinde baphikisana ngokuthi imikhawulo yalokho esingakwazi iphawulwa yimingcele yesipiliyoni, ngakho-ke ngale kwalokhu kukhona kuphela... ukuqagela okungenasisekelo.
Kuyafaneleka ukwengeza ukuthi igama elinjalo livela esiGrekini ἐμπειρία (ngokoqobo, isipiliyoni) kanti inguqulo yesiLatini isipiliyoni, lisuselwa egameni isipiliyoni.
Elinye igama elisuselwe kulo igama lesiGreki nelesiRoma elithi okokusebenzaLokhu kubhekisela kodokotela abathola amakhono abo ngolwazi olusebenzayo hhayi nje ngemfundo yemfundiso kuphela. Lo mbono ufingqa kahle umongo wobuciko: ukufunda ngokwenza nangokubukakunokwamukela izimiso ezingacacile ngaphandle kokuqinisekiswa.
I-Empiricism ibe nethonya elikhulu ekuthuthukisweni kwe indlela yesayensiEzinyathelweni ezifana nokukholelwa ukuthi izinto zilungile kanye nasemfundweni, lapho kugcizelelwa khona ukubaluleka kokuhlangenwe nakho okuqondile, ukuhlola, kanye nokubuka okuhlelekile.
Ukucabanga
I-Rationalism ifuna ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ingqondo yomuntu isivele inolwazi noma imigomo yangaphambilini ngaphandle kokuba nokuhlangenwe nakho okudingekile. Ngokwalo mbono, kuneqiniso eliqondwa kuphela ngengqondo, njengezibalo noma izimiso ezithile zokuziphatha, futhi elingaxhomekile kulokho esikubonayo ngezinzwa zethu.
Njengoba kushiwo ngaphambili, yamenyezelwa ngesimo sayo sesimanje nguRené Descartes ezwekazini laseYurophu. Kuye, indawo yokuqala eqinisekile yikhono lokucabanga: yingakho ekhuluma ngendlela edumile, “Ngicabanga, ngakho-ke nginguye.” Kusukela kulokhu kuqiniseka, i-rationalism yakha izinhlelo zefilosofi ezihlose ukuthola ukuhleleka komhlaba kusukela izimiso ezisobala.
Abanye abantu abaqavile abacabangayo bahlanganisa UBharuki Spinoza, owasungula uhlelo lwefilosofi oluqinile kakhulu oluqondakala njengohlobo “lwejiyometri yokuziphatha”, kanye UGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizabavikela ukuba khona kwamaqiniso adingekayo kanye “nama-monads” njengezingxenye eziyisisekelo zeqiniso. Bonke babenenkolelo yokuthi isizathu somuntu Kungafinyelela amaqiniso asemhlabeni wonke ngale kwalokho okuboniswa yizinzwa.
Imibono
Njengoba igama layo lisikisela, i-idealism ingenye yezindlela zefilosofi ezisekelwe ku- ubuqambi bemibono, ingqondo noma ukuqonda kanye nokumelela kwayo, ukuphika noma ukungabaza ukuba khona okuzimele komhlaba wezinto ezibonakalayo kuphela. Ezinguqulweni zayo eziqine kakhulu, ithi into ethile ibingeke ibe khona uma kungekho muntu oyaziyo.
Ukuze kucace, lesi sikole sokucabanga sithi ukuze umuntu azi noma afunde nganoma yini, kufanele acabangele ngokuyinhloko umsebenzi wokuqondaIzakhiwo zemicabango kanye nezinhlaka zomqondo esizisebenzisayo. Akukho ukufinyelela "okungathathi hlangothi" eqinisweni: sihlala sicabanga ngezigaba, izilimi, kanye nokuhumusha.
Le mbono inezinhlobo ezahlukene, njenge i-idealism eqondile futhi i i-idealism yokuzimelaIthiyori yokuqala ithi imibono ikhona ngokuzimela kwengqondo ethile futhi itholakala noma ifundwe ngokuhlangenwe nakho nokuzindla. Phakathi kwabasekeli abavelele balo mbono kukhona ULeibniz, uHegel, uBernard Bolzano noDilthey.
Ngokuphambene nalokho, nge-idealism yomuntu siqu, abacabangi bakholelwa ukuthi imibono ikhona emqondweni womuntu ngamunye nokuthi akukho mhlaba wangaphandle osebenza wodwa njengoba sicabanga. Abasekeli balo mbono bahlanganisa uDescartes, uBerkeley, uKant, uFichte, uMach, uCassirer, noCollingwood. Ngaphakathi kwalo mbono, umuntu angathola futhi inguqulo eqondile ethi "izinto azikho ngokwazo, kodwa zikhona kithi kuphela," kanye nenguqulo elinganiselayo "ethi izinto zingumbala wengilazi ezibukwa ngayo."
Ngaphakathi kwe-idealism, umehluko uvame ukwenziwa phakathi i-idealism engaphandle kwengqondo Kant's, ehlaziya izimo ze-a priori ezivumela ulwazi, kanye Imibono emihle yaseJalimane (Fichte, Schelling, Hegel), othuthukisa izinhlelo ezinhle ngendima yomoya, inkululeko kanye nokucabanga embhalweni weqiniso.
Ukubhekana Namaqiniso
Ubuqiniso befilosofi buphikisana ne-idealism. Lesi sikole semicabango sithi Iqiniso likhona ngaphandle kwengqondo ukuthi ubani oyibonayo. Ngokusho kobuqiniso, izinto zinokuphila okunenjongo okungaxhomekile kumuntu ozibonayo noma ozicabangayo.
Izimpande zayo zisefilosofini yokuthi I-Aristotle, owathi izidalwa zinobuntu esingabuqonda, nasemasikweni emfundo, ikakhulukazi USanta Thomas wase-Aquino, owakha ubuqiniso obuphakathi nendawo lapho eqaphela khona kokubili iqiniso langaphandle kanye nekhono lomuntu lokulazi, yize ngendlela elinganiselwe futhi kancane kancane.
Ubuqiniso bube yisisekelo ekuthuthukisweni kwesayensi yemvelo, emibonweni eminingi yokuziphatha ebeka phambili isimo somuntu esibonakalayo, kanye nezindlela zefilosofi ezifisa ukugwema ingozi yokuwela ku- ukucabangela ngokweqile lapho konke kuzoncika kumbukeli.
I-Positivism
Njengoba kuchaziwe ngenhla, i-positivism igxile kakhulu ku- ukwenqaba noma ukuphikisa ukuthi ulwazi oluyiqiniso luncike ekuqageleni okungokoqobo noma okungokwenkolo kuphelaKunalokho, uthi ifilosofi nesayensi kufanele kugxile emaqinisweni abonakalayo kanye nemithetho etholakala kuwo.
Kwavela eFrance ngaphansi kwethonya lababhali abanjengoSaint-Simon kanye U-Auguste ComteYandiswa ngabacabangi abafana noJohn Stuart Mill yabe isisabalala kulo lonke elaseYurophu. Kodwa-ke, kuthiwa uFrancis Bacon, owakhuthaza ukubuka okuhlelekile kanye nokuhlola.
UComte uchaze ukuvela komcabango womuntu ku izigaba ezintathuImfundiso yenkolo (konke kuchazwa ngonkulunkulu noma izidalwa ezingaphezu kwemvelo), izinto ezingaphili (kusetshenziswa izinto ezingaqondakali), kanye nezinto ezinhle (kufunwa imithetho ejwayelekile ukuchaza amaqiniso aqinisekisiwe). Kulesi sigaba sokugcina, ulwazi lwesayensi luba yisibonelo sokubhekisela ekuqondeni umhlaba wezinto ezibonakalayo nowezenhlalo.
Kusukela kulo mshini wamanje, izinhlobo ezifana ne- i-logical positivism kanye neopositivism, eyayigcizelela ukuthi iziphakamiso ezinengqondo kumele ziqinisekiswe ngokombono noma ngokuhlaziya. Nakuba izimfundiso zayo eziningi ziye zachazwa kabanzi, i-positivism ishiye uphawu olujulile ku indlela yesayensi, kwezenhlalo kanye nasemibonweni yezobuchwepheshe yentuthuko.
Ukugxekwa
Ukugxekwa kusekelwe ekufuneni amandla ukusungula imikhawulo yolwazi ngophenyo oluhlelekile lwezimo zokuthi kungenzeka yini ukucabanga. Le mfundiso ye-epistemological yachazwa ngu-Immanuel Kant, ikakhulukazi emsebenzini wakhe ozinikele ekucabangeni okungokwemfundiso.
Esikhundleni sokubuza nje ukuthi ulwazi lungenzeka yini, uKant ubuza ukuthi kungenzeka kanjani, ukuthi isihloko sinikeza ini nokuthi into inikela ini esenzweni sokwazi. Ukuze enze lokhu, uhlukanisa phakathi ulwazi lwangaphambilini (ngaphambi kokuhlangenwe nakho, njengesikhala, isikhathi, noma izigaba ezithile) kanye a posteriori (kususelwa kokuhlangenwe nakho). Ngakho-ke ukugxekwa kuzama ukuchaza ukuhlanganiswa phakathi kokucabanga kanye nokuqonda: kuyaqaphela ukubaluleka kokuhlangenwe nakho, kodwa futhi nokwezakhiwo ezinengqondo ezikuhlelayo.
Lo mkhuba uphawule iphuzu elibalulekile ekuguqukeni kwesimanje kwefilosofi, ngoba ugcizelela indima esebenzayo yale ndaba futhi ulindele izingxoxo eziningi zakamuva mayelana ubudlelwano phakathi kwengqondo nomhlabaphakathi kolimi, isiko kanye neqiniso.
AmaStoyiku
Kugxilwe kakhulu ezintweni ezijwayelekile nezokuziphatha, lo mshini ushumayela ukubaluleka kokuphatha nokulawula imicimbi yangaphakathi (izinqumo, izifiso, imizwa), kunokuba kube yimicimbi yangaphandle esingenawo amandla kuyo. UbuStoicism busifundisa ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwalokho okuncike kithi nalokho okungaxhomekeki kithi, nokugxila emizamweni yethu ekuphileni ngokwengqondo kanye nobuhle.
Le filosofi igcizelela isidingo sokulawula izinkanuko nezinye izinto ezivame ukuphazamisa ukuphila komuntu, ukuze kusetshenziswe kokubili isibindi kanye... amandla obuntuNgokusho kwamaStoyiku, umuntu ohlakaniphile ugcina ukuthula lapho ebhekene nobunzima ngoba uchaza izenzakalo ngombono obanzi, ngokuvumelana nemvelo kanye nokuhleleka kwendawo yonke.
Ingenye yezindala kakhulu futhi isukela cishe ku- Kusukela ngekhulu lesi-3 BC kuya ekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-2 ADIsikhathi sayo esibaluleke kakhulu sasingesikhathi senkathi yobuGreki. Umsunguli wobuStoicism kwakunguZeno waseCitium, kanti abasekeli bayo abavelele babehlanganisa uCicero, u-Epictetus, uMarcus Aurelius, uSeneca, kanye noSextus Empiricus.
UbuStoicism busanda kuzuza ukubaluleka okusha ku- ukuthuthukiswa komuntu siquI-psychology kanye nokuphathwa kwemizwelo, njengoba izivivinyo zayo kanye nesimo sengqondo ziwusizo ekubhekaneni nokucindezeleka, ukungaqiniseki kanye nezinguquko eziqhubekayo zokuphila kwanamuhla.
Isakhiwo
Nakuba igama layo lingasho ngokushesha ukuthi ingenye yezikole zefilosofi zakudala zokucabanga, ukwakheka kwesakhiwo manje kubhekwa njengethonya elibalulekile kwifilosofi yanamuhla, i-anthropology, izilimi, kanye nezinye isayensi yabantu. Isekelwe emcabangweni wokuthi, ukuze umuntu aqonde into ethile, kumelwe adlule ezibonakalisweni zayo ezingokoqobo futhi ahlaziye izindlela zayo eziyisisekelo. izakhiwo zobudlelwano eziyisisekelo abahlela lokho.
Kuyindlela ethile yokwenza hlaziya ulimi, isiko kanye nomphakathiLe mbono igxile ezinhlelweni nasemithethweni echaza ukuthi izakhi (amagama, izimpawu, imikhuba, izindima) zihlangana kanjani ngaphakathi kwento yonke. Umqalisi nommeleli obaluleke kakhulu wale mbono ku-anthropology kwakunguClaude Lévi-Strauss, kanti kwezezilimi ihlotshaniswa noFerdinand de Saussure, kanye nakwifilosofi nababhali abanjengoMichel Foucault noLouis Althusser, phakathi kwabanye.
Ukwakheka kwesakhiwo kwaphawula indlela entsha yokufunda izenzakalo zabantu, ngokugcizelela ukuthi imikhuba yethu eminingi kanye nezincazelo zethu kunqunywa yi izakhiwo esingaziqondi ngamabomukodwa zinquma lokho esikubheka njengokungenzeka noma okungacabangeka.
I-Phenomenology
I-Phenomenology iwumsinga womcabango wokuthi Tadisha futhi uchaze ngokucophelela lokho okubonakala kokuhlangenwe nakhoOkusho ukuthi, izenzakalo njengoba zibonakala engqondweni. Akuqali ngokucabanga noma ngemibono yangaphambilini, kodwa kuhlose "ukubuyela ezintweni ngokwazo" futhi kuhlolwe ukuthi izinto, izincazelo, kanye nokuhlangenwe nakho kuvela kanjani kumuntu wokuqala.
Kuthiwa ivela ekuhlanganiseni kobuciko kanye nombono oqondile, njengoba ibheka kokubili okuhlangenwe nakho okuqondile kanye nezakhiwo zokuqonda ezihlosiwe. Abasekeli bayo abayinhloko kwakunguHusserl, uMerleau-Ponty, uSartre, noHeidegger.
Empeleni, i-phenomenology ithonye i-psychology, isayensi yezenhlalo, kanye nokuziphatha ngokunikeza amathuluzi okuqonda okuningiliziwe indlela esibhekana ngayo nesikhathi, umzimba, okunye, umhlaba wezenhlalo kanye namanani, ngaphandle kokunciphisa lezi zilinganiso zibe idatha elula eqondile.
Ukuthanda izinto ezibonakalayo
Ukuthanda izinto ezibonakalayo kuwumsinga wefilosofi, njengoba igama lawo lisho, oqinisekisa ukuthi Konke okungokoqobo kungokwemvelo ebonakalayo. noma kuncike ezinqubweni ezibonakalayo. Iyalahla izinto ezingokomoya kuphela, njengomphefumulo ohlukile emzimbeni noma izwe lemibono elizimele ezintweni. Ngisho nemibono nezimo zokuqwashisa ziqondwa njengezikhiqizwa yizakhiwo zomzimba noma ngobudlelwano obuqondile bomphakathi.
Ngokusho kwabacwaningi, kungabhekwa njengokuphambene nombono ophambene. Endulo, abacabangi abanjengoDemocritus no-Epicurus base beyivikela imibono yezinto ezibonakalayo, bethi konke kwakhiwe ngama-athomu futhi kungenalutho. Kamuva, uMarx wasungula ukuthanda izinto ezibonakalayo ngokomlando, echaza umlando wesintu ngokusekelwe ezimweni ezibonakalayo zokukhiqiza, umzabalazo wezigaba, kanye nezakhiwo zomnotho.
U-Epicurus noMarx baphakathi kwabasekeli balo mqondo, ngamunye ezimweni ezihlukene kakhulu kodwa bayavumelana ngokubaluleka iqiniso elingokoqobo uma kuqhathaniswa nezincazelo ezingokomoya noma ezingaphezu kwamandla emvelo.
Ubukhona obukhona
Ngokungafani nezinye ezethulwe njengefilosofi yezinto, lena ibalulekile ku- umuntu njengoba enjalo, ekuveza njengomfanekiso wokuzikhiqiza ngokukhululeka okukhona kodwa endaweni yonke ngaphandle kwesidingo sokucabanga ngencazelo enqunyiwe. Lo mshini usekelwe ekuhlaziyweni kwe isimo somuntu, inkululeko, imizwa, usizi kanye nokufuna incazelo.
Kwabaningi abakholelwa ekubeni khona kwezinto, "ukuba khona kuqala ngaphambi kwengqikithi": okokuqala sikhona, bese kuthi, ngezinqumo zethu, sakhe ukuthi singobani. Akukho mvelo eqondile enquma ngokuphelele ikusasa lethu, ngakho-ke umthwalo wemfanelo usemahlombe ethu. umthwalo wemfanelo wokukhetha nokwamukela imiphumela.
Kuleli qophelo, kubalulekile ukugcizelela ukuthi lokhu akuyona inkolelo-mbono ehlelekile noma evaliwe ngokwefilosofi; empeleni, kuthiwa abaningi babasekeli bayo abavumelani ngokuphelele nefilosofi yezemfundo yendabuko. Eminyakeni edlule, iye yahlukahluka kakhulu, futhi namuhla izinguqulo ezifana nalezi ezilandelayo ziyaqashelwa: ubukhona bobuKristu, the ubukhona be-agnostic futhi i ubukhona bokukholelwa kuNkulunkulu.
Amaphayona ayeyi UPascal, uKierkegaard, uSartre, uCamus noHeidegger, phakathi kwabanye. Ukuzindla kwakhe kube nomthelela ezincwadini, ubuciko, ingqondo, kanye nezingxoxo mayelana nokuba yiqiniso, ukuhlukaniswa, kanye nokuphila okunenjongo.
Ukungabaza
Ukungabaza kugxile, noma kusekelwe, imibuzo ejulile yalezi zinsoloUkungabaza kuwukungabaza okuqhubekayo okwenqaba ukwamukela noma yini njengeyiqiniso ngokuphelele ngaphandle kokuthi kufakazelwe ngobufakazi obuqinile kakhulu. Ezimweni eziningi, abagxeki baphetha ngokuthi izinga elinjalo lokuqiniseka alinakufinyeleleka futhi batusa ukumiswa kwesahlulelo.
UDiogenes Laertius, uHume, noBerkeley babengabameleli ababalulekile balo mkhakha ezigabeni ezahlukene, yize emasikweni asendulo uhlotshaniswa kakhulu no I-Pyrrho kanye noSextus Empiricus. Ukungabaza akusho ukuthi uphika zonke izinhlobo zolwazi olusebenzayo, kodwa kusimema ukuba singathembi izimangalo eziqinile kanye nokugcina isimo sengqondo sokugxeka ngemibono, izinkolelo, kanye nezinhlelo zamandla.
Ukugxeka
UbuCynicism buyindlela yokucabanga eyasungulwa eGrisi lasendulo eyayisekelwe esenzweni sika ukwenqaba izimiso zomphakathi nezokuziphatha ababekubheka njengokwenziwa noma okonakele. Impilo yamaCynic igxile enkolelweni yokuthi injabulo itholakala ngokuphila okulula, okwanelisayo ngokuvumelana nemvelo, ngokuziphuca izimpahla ezingadingekile, udumo, kanye nemithetho ebekiwe.
Ukuze babhekisele kulokho ababekusho noma ukuphikisa into abangavumelani nayo, basebenzisa izinsiza ze- ukuhlekisa, ukuhlekisa, kanye nezenzo ezivusa inkanukoYasungulwa ngu-Antisthenes futhi omunye wabafundi bakhe ababaluleke kakhulu kwakunguDiogenes waseSinope, odumile ngezindaba zakhe lapho ayehlekisa khona ngemikhuba yomphakathi wase-Athene.
Romanticism
Uthando akufanele ludidaniswe nokunyakaza kobuciko noma ukuphakanyiswa kothando kuphela. Njengesikole sokucabanga, lubonakala ngokugqamisa amandla angaphakathi akwazi ukuqonda okuphelele kanye nokuzwela okuphawulekayo ngemvelo, izinkanuko kanye nokuhluka kwemithetho yomuntu ngamunye uma kuqhathaniswa nemithetho eqinile yendawo yonke.
Le ndlela yokuphila yayikholelwa emandleni omuntu okuxhumana nokungenamkhawulo ngokucabanga, imizwa, kanye nobuciko. Ibonakala nge- ukweqisa ngamabomu kwemizwa zihlobene nemvelo, zichaza njengesimo sengqondo sangempela sokuqonda komuntu lapho ekhululiwe emikhawulweni yokucabanga noma engokomthetho kuphela.
Umgomo wabo ukubuyisa imizwa, inkululeko kanye nokuzithobakanye nobudlelwano obujulile phakathi kwemvelo, ubuntu, kanye noNkulunkulu. Abasekeli bayo abayinhloko bahlanganisa uHegel, uSchelling, noFichte, ikakhulukazi ngaphakathi komongo we-idealism yaseJalimane, yize i-Romanticism ihlanganisa nezimbongi eziningi, abaculi, kanye nabacabangi abavela kwezinye izinkambu.
I-Dogmatism
I-Dogmatism ibhekwa njengokuphambene nokungabaza, futhi ngezinga elikhulu, ibhekwa njengokuphambene nezinhlobo ezithile ze-radical idealism. Isekelwe ekwethembeni ku- amandla ento ukuziphoqelela kule ndaba: umhlaba waziwa njengoba unjalo, ngaphandle kwesidingo sokungabaza izimo zolwazi ngendlela ejulile.
Lesi sikole sokucabanga sithi ingqondo yomuntu iyakwazi ukwazi iqiniso, nokuthi kunezimiso, izimfundiso, noma izimfundiso ezingamukelwa ngaphandle kokubuyekezwa njalo. Omunye wabameleli abakhulu befilosofi abahlotshaniswa nemibono yezimfundiso kwakunguSpinoza, yize leli gama livame ukusetshenziswa ngokugxeka ukukhomba izimo zengqondo ezingavulelekile ekubuzweni.
I-Historicism
I-historicism iwumsinga wobuhlakani lapho Umlando udlala indima ebalulekile ukuqonda imvelo yomuntu kanye nomphakathi. Umqondo oyinhloko ukuthi yonke into yezenhlalo, yamasiko, noma yezepolitiki kumele ihlaziywe kusukela ekuqaleni kwayo kanye nentuthuko yomlando, kugwenywe izincazelo ezingezona ezomlando noma ezingacacile.
Phakathi kwabameleli bayo kukhona uWilhelm Dilthey, owaphikelela ngokuthi isayensi yabantu idinga izindlela zokuqonda zomlando, kanye nabanye abacabangi abaye bagcizelela ukubaluleka kokubeka imibono ngaphakathi komongo wayo womlando. izimo zesikhathi ezithileLe ndlela isisiza ukuthi sibone amafilosofi ngokwawo njengemikhiqizo yesikhathi sawo, lapho kuxoxwa ngezimo ezithile.
I-Pragmatism
I-Pragmatism iyinhlangano yefilosofi evela e-United States efuna ukuhlobanisa incazelo yemibono nemiphumela yayo ewusizoNgokwalo mbono, inkolelo iyiqiniso ngezinga “elisebenzayo” ngalo, okungukuthi, uma iwusizo ekuqondiseni isenzo nasekuxazululeni izinkinga.
Kwabacabangi abanengqondo, awekho amaqiniso aphelele angaxhunyiwe kokuhlangenwe nakho: ulwazi luyinto inqubo ashukumisayo lapho imibono ihlolwa khona ngokusebenza futhi ilungiswe ngokwemiphumela. UCharles S. Peirce, uWilliam James, noJohn Dewey bangabanye babameleli bayo abanethonya elikhulu.
Ubuntu
I-Humanism iyinhlangano yobuhlakani ebeka isisekelo sayo umuntu njengesilinganiso Ihlanganisa izinto eziningi: ifuna ukuqonda amakhono omuntu, isithunzi sakhe, kanye nendima yakhe emhlabeni. Esigabeni sayo sokuvuselelwa, yayibonakala ngokubuyela ezifundweni zakudala zesiGreki nesiLatini kanye nokukholelwa emfundweni nasebucikweni njengendlela yokuphelelisa umuntu.
Ifilosofi yobuntu ihlose ukunikeza impilo incazelo enengqondo, ngaphandle kokuthembela kuphela ezimisweni zenkolo, futhi ithonye ukuziphatha kwamalungelo abantu, amamodeli emfundo aphelele, kanye nemibono yezepolitiki egxile ekuhlonipheni ukuzimela kanye nenkululeko yomuntu siqu.
Ukungacabangi
Igama elithi irrationalism lihlanganisa izikhundla ezahlukahlukene, esikhundleni sokwenqaba ngokuphelele ukucabanga, qokomisa imikhawulo yalokhu futhi ziqokomisa indima yentando, imizwa, imizwa ebalulekile, noma amandla angaqaphile ekuziphatheni komuntu.
Lesi sikole sokucabanga sihlanganisa abacabangi abanjengoSchopenhauer, uNietzsche, noKierkegaard, ngamunye wabo, ngendlela yakhe, owabuza umqondo wokuthi iqiniso lingancishiswa libe uhlelo olucacile nolunengqondo. Bonke bavumelana ngokuthi impilo yomuntu igcwele izici ezibuhlungu, ezinomdlandla, noma ezingenangqondo okungekho logic engazihlanganisa ngokugcwele.
I-postmodernity
I-Postmodernity ibhekisela emgudwini obanzi wezinhlangano zamasiko, ezenhlalo, kanye nezobuhlakani ezithi Abazethembi izindaba ezinkulu Ama-Universalists kanye nomqondo wentuthuko eqondile ezuzwe njengefa kusukela esimanje. Kubaluleke kakhulu ezinsolweni zokungakhethi cala ngokuphelele futhi kugcizelela imibono eminingi, ubunikazi, kanye nezinkulumo.
Kwifilosofi, i-postmodernism ibuza izindaba ezivezwa njengezingathathi hlangothi noma eziphakeme, futhi igcizelela ukubaluleka kokuthi ubudlelwano bamandla ekwakhiweni kolwazi. Ababhali abanjengoLyotard, uDerrida, uFoucault, noBaudrillard banegalelo kule ndlela, eye yathonya nobuciko, izakhiwo kanye nezifundo zamasiko.
ifilosofi yokuhlaziya
Ifilosofi yokuhlaziya yathuthukiswa ikakhulukazi ezweni elikhuluma isiNgisi futhi ibonakala ngokusetshenziswa okuqinile kwe ukuhlaziywa okunengqondo nokwezilimi ukubhekana nezinkinga zefilosofi. Inhloso yayo akuyona nje ukwakha izinhlelo ezinkulu kodwa ukucacisa imiqondo, ukuhlukanisa izincazelo, nokugwema ukudideka okuvela ekusetshenzisweni kwamagama ngendlela engafanele.
Phakathi kwabantu ababalulekile abakhona kukhona uBertrand Russell, uLudwig Wittgenstein, iVienna Circle kanye nezazi zefilosofi eziningi ezisebenze ezindaweni ezifana nefilosofi yolimi, i-epistemology, i-metaphysics noma izimiso zokuziphatha, njalo ngesitayela sokuphikisana esicacile nesiningiliziwe.
I-Hermeneutics
I-Hermeneutics, ngomqondo wayo olula, iyi- ubuciko kanye nokuchazwa kwemibhaloKodwa kwifilosofi, sekuyindlela evamile yokuqonda. Labo abasebenzisa indlela ye-hermeneutic bagxila ekuqondeni okuphelele kwemibhalo, izenzo, ngisho nemiphakathi yonke.
Incazelo efanele ayinakwenziwa uma umongo wezenhlalo, wezepolitiki, wamasiko, wezilimi kanye nowomuntu siqu lapho kuvela khona lokho okuhunyushwayo. Phakathi nekhulu leminyaka elidlule yathuthukiswa kakhulu ngababhali abanjengoHeidegger, uGadamer, noPaul Ricoeur, futhi namuhla iyisihluthulelo semikhakha efana nemfundiso yenkolo, ukugxekwa kwezincwadi, kanye nesayensi yezenhlalo.
Izikole ezengeziwe zakudala kanye nezinhlangano
Ngaphezu kwezikole ezinkulu zokucabanga esezishiwo kakade, kunezinye izikole zakudala eziye zakha umlando wefilosofi:
- Abaculi: othisha abajikelezayo bokukhuluma nokuphikisana, abaziwa ngokugcizelela kwabo ekuthonyeni kanye nezikhundla eziseduze nokuhlobana kwezinto kanye nokucabanga ngemibono.
- Inkolo kaPlato: abalandeli bakaPlato abajula kakhulu embonweni wemibono, ukungafi komphefumulo, kanye nenhlangano yezombusazwe efanelekile.
- Isikole samabanga aphansi: abafundi baka-Aristotle abaqhubeka nomsebenzi wakhe kwezengqondo, i-metaphysics, ukuziphatha kanye nesayensi yemvelo.
- I-Epicureanism: abafundi baka-Epicurus ababesekela impilo esekelwe ezinjabulweni ezilinganiselayo, ubungane, ukuthula komphefumulo kanye nokungabi nokwesaba, ikakhulukazi lapho bebhekene nokufa kanye nonkulunkulu.
- Isikole saseMilethu: eyasungulwa nguThales yaqhubeka no-Anaximander no-Anaximenes, yagxila ekufuneni isimiso esibonakalayo sazo zonke izinto.
- Isikole se-Eleatic: noParmenides noZeno base-Elea, abavikeli bombono wokuba abahlukile, abangaguquki nabangenalo uvuko.
- AmaPythagoreans: okwamanje okwakuthi ingqikithi yazo zonke izinto iyizinto izinombolo kanye nezilinganiso, okuhlanganisa imfihlakalo, izibalo kanye nokuvumelana kwendawo yonke.
- Isikole saseMegarianYasungulwa ngu-Euclid waseMegara, enesithakazelo ekucabangeni nasekuxabaneni mayelana noshintsho kanye nobunikazi.
- Isikole saseCyrenaic: eyasungulwa ngu-Aristup waseKhurene, igxile esimisweni sokuzijabulisa okusheshayo kanye nokuqina kwemizwa.
- Isikole se-NeoplatonicYadalwa ngu-Ammonius Saccas futhi yathuthukiswa nguPlotinus, owahlanganisa ubuPlato nezinto eziyimfihlakalo nezenkolo; uSanta Augustine wahlanganisa eminingi yale mibono ebuKristwini.
Njengamanje, izinhlobo ezintsha zala masiko nazo ziyaqoshwa, njenge- isikhumba yesimanje, ubuntu okwamanje, i ukulesa kanye nemisinga ye wokwakha ezichaza kabusha ngokuhlolisisa imibhalo emikhulu nezigaba zesikhathi esidlule.
Imisinga yefilosofi yezepolitiki
Inkontileka
I-Contractualism ingenye yezindlela zefilosofi zezepolitiki zanamuhla futhi isekelwe embonweni wokuthi Umbuso nomphakathi akuyona into yemvelokodwa kunalokho umphumela wesivumelwano noma inkontileka phakathi kwabantu abakhululekile. Iphakamisa ukucabanga "ngesimo semvelo" ukuze kucatshangelwe ukuthi kungani abantu bengavuma ukukhawulela inkululeko ethile ukuze bathole ukuphepha, ubulungiswa, noma ukubambisana.
Ifuna ukusungula isivumelwano phakathi kwalabo abaqala ukwakha ingxenye yomphakathi omusha, futhi ngandlela thile, ukuthola ubumbano phakathi kwenkululeko nokulingana. Abasekeli bayo abakhulu kwakunguRousseau, Kant, Hobbes, Spinoza, noLocke, ngamunye enenguqulo ehlukile: abanye bagcizelela ukuphepha, abanye impahla, noma intando evamile.
Ukusetshenziswa kwemisebenzi
Utilitarianism ingenye yezindlela zefilosofi ezithi okuhle nokumukelekayo ngokokuziphatha, kokubili kumuntu ngamunye kanye nomphakathi, yilokho kuveza injabulo enkulu noma usizo ngenani elikhulu kakhulu labantu.
Nakuba lesi sisekelo sibizwa ngokuthi iProtagoras ka-Abdera ngandlela thile yasendulo, abameleli abakhulu banamuhla kwakunguJ. Bentham noJ.S. Mill, ababekholelwa ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kukhiqiza izinzuzo, injabulo, nezinye izinhlobo zempilo, kuyilapho kunciphisa ubuhlungu, ukuhlupheka, kanye nokulimala.
UMill wethula umehluko phakathi injabulo ephansi nephezuluUveze ukuthi akwanele ukucabangela inani lenjabulo, kodwa futhi nekhwalithi yayo: imisebenzi yengqondo, yobuhle noma yokuziphatha ingabhekwa njengenjabulo yohlobo oluphezulu kunokwaneliseka kwesikhashana nje.
UbuKhomanisi
UbuKhomanisi, ezicini zabo zefilosofi nezepolitiki, bukholelwa ekuhlelekeni komphakathi ngaphandle kokuba khona ubunikazi bangasese bezinto zokukhiqiza noma ukungafani kwezigaba okuvumela ukuxhashazwa kwabanye ngabanye. Umbono wabo umphakathi lapho izinsiza ziphathwa khona ngokubambisana futhi umuntu ngamunye unikela ngokwamakhono akhe futhi uthola ngokwezidingo zakhe.
Phakathi kwabameleli ababaluleke kakhulu kukhona uPlato (kuphrojekthi yakhe yokuxhumana kwezimpahla phakathi kwabaqaphi e- La República), uMarx, uEngels, noFourier. Embonweni kaMarx, ubukhomanisi buvezwa njengesigaba sesikhathi esizayo sentuthuko yezenhlalo ngemva kokunqotshwa kobungxowankulu kanye noMbuso njengethuluzi lokubusa isigaba.
Ubusoshiyali
Ubusoshiyali busekelwe embonweni wokuthi kokubili ubunikazi kanye nokuphathwa izindlela zokukhiqiza Kumelwe, ngamazinga ahlukahlukene, babe sezandleni zomphakathi noma zezigaba zabasebenzi. Umgomo wabo ukufeza inhlangano yezenhlalo ekhuthaza ukulingana kwezepolitiki, kwezenhlalo, kanye nezomnotho okubanzi kakhulu kunaleyo enikezwa yi-liberalism yakudala.
UMarx noProudhon babengabasekeli ababalulekile balo mndeni wemibono, kanye nabanye abasoshalisti be-utopian kanye nentando yeningi. Ubusoshalisti buphefumulele izinhlangano nezinhlelo ezahlukahlukene zezepolitiki, kusukela kumamodeli kahulumeni wenhlalakahle yezinguquko kuya kumaphrojekthi amakhulu okuguqula izinto.
Ukukhululeka
Ukukhululeka kungenye yezindlela zezepolitiki nezefilosofi eziqinisekisa ukuthi uMbuso kufanele ukuvikela inkululeko yomuntu ngamunye njengesimiso esiyinhloko. Kusukela kulo mbono, inhloso iwukunciphisa ukungenelela kukahulumeni emnothweni kanye nasempilweni yangasese, kuqinisekiswa amalungelo ayisisekelo kanye nenkululeko efana nokuveza imibono, ukuhlangana, kanye nempahla.
Lokhu kuphumela ekungeneleleni okulinganiselwe kombuso ezindabeni zomphakathi nezomnotho zabantu, okungenani ngesimo sawo sakudala. Abacabangi abanjengoLocke, uMontesquieu, kanye, muva nje, uRawls (ngombono wakhe wobulungiswa) bebe ngabameleli abavelele, yize ukukhululeka kwanamuhla kuhlanganisa nezinhlobo zokulingana nezomphakathi ezibuyekeza imigomo yayo yokuqala.
Ukukhululeka
I-Libertarianism iyisimo esibi kakhulu emndenini we-liberal esiphikisana ngokuthi umuntu ngamunye unayo cishe ulungile ngokuphelele phezu kwakhe kanye nobunikazi bayo, yingakho uMbuso kufanele wehliswe ube sezingeni eliphansi noma unyamalale. Kukhona ukungathembi okujulile kwanoma yiliphi igunya eliphakathi okungase kuvimbele umzamo wangasese noma inkululeko yesivumelwano.
UNozick wayengomunye wabasunguli abavelele, ekhuthaza "umbuso omncane" ozinikele cishe kuphela ekuvikeleni amalungelo ayisisekelo odlameni, ukweba, noma ukukhwabanisa, nokushiya impilo yomphakathi esele ezivumelwaneni zokuzithandela phakathi kwabantu ngabanye.
Eminye imikhuba nemibono yesimanje
Ithiyori ebucayi
Ithiyori egxekayo yazalwa kulokho okubizwa ngokuthi Isikhumulo sezindiza saseFrankfurt Igxile ekuhlaziyeni nasekuguquleni izakhiwo zomphakathi, ezomnotho, nezamasiko ezidala ukungalingani, ukubusa, kanye nokuhlukaniswa. Idlula nje ekuchazeni iqiniso: ifisa ukucabanga okukhuthaza izinqubo zokukhulula.
Abameleli bayo, njengoTheodor Adorno, uMax Horkheimer, noJürgen Habermas, bakhuluma ngezihloko ezifana nalezi: imboni yamasikoUkucabanga okunengqondo kwezinsimbi zomculo, ukuphathwa kabi kwabezindaba, ubushiqela, kanye namathuba okuxhumana ngaphandle kokuphoqelelwa kwakuyizingqikithi ezibalulekile. Lo mqondo waba nethonya elikhulu ezifundweni zezenhlalo nezepolitiki, ikakhulukazi ezimweni zokugxekwa kobungxowankulu obuthuthukile.
Umcabango we-Postcolonial
Umcabango we-Postcolonial uwumsinga wefilosofi nowokugxeka ohlola imiphumela yamasiko, yezenhlalo neyezepolitiki yobukoloni kanye nokubusa kwamandla aseNtshonalanga. Ihlaziya indlela ukoloni oluthinte ngayo ubuwena, ulwazi, kanye nokumelwa kwabantu abacindezelwe.
Lo mbono ukhuthaza ukuqashelwa kobuningi bamasiko kanye nokwaziswa i-epistemoloji yabantu bomdabu, inzalo yama-Afrika kanye neyasendaweniLokhu kuphikisa isimangalo sokuthi amamodeli aseYurophu akhethekile. Kubaluleke kakhulu ezifundeni eziye zabhekana nezinqubo zokoloni ezinde futhi manje ezifuna ukwakha kabusha umlando namaphrojekthi azo.
I-Neo-Aristotleism
I-Neo-Aristotelianism ihilela i- ukufunda kabusha kwesimanje Lesi sikole sokucabanga sisekelwe ezimfundisweni zika-Aristotle, ikakhulukazi kwezokuziphatha kanye ne-epistemology. Sivuselela imiqondo efana nobuhle, i-golden mean, i-eudaimonia (impilo enhle), kanye nomqondo wokuthi ukuziphatha kufanele kusekelwe emikhubeni nasebuntwini, hhayi emithethweni engaqondakali nje kuphela.
Ezinye zezindawo zamanje zomsebenzi wabantu abasanda kufika ku-Aristotle yilezi: i-epistemology yezimfanelo ezinhle kanye nezimiso zokuziphatha okuhle, okunethonya emcabangweni wokungabuswa ubukoloni, ubufeministi kanye nezingxoxo ngemfundo yomphakathi kanye neyobungcweti.
Ukuhumusha kabusha kwe-Neo- kanye nesimanje
Ifilosofi yanamuhla ikhuluma futhi ubu-neo-Kantianism, ubu-neo-Marxism, ubu-neo-Thomism kanye nokunye ukuhumusha kabusha okuvuselela imisinga yakudala ngenxa yezinkinga ezintsha ezifana nokuhwebelana komhlaba wonke, inkinga yezemvelo, ubuchwepheshe bezinto eziphilayo, ubuhlakani bokwenziwa noma ukuguqulwa komsebenzi.
Lezi zibuyekezo zibonisa ukuthi imisinga yefilosofi ayizona izingcezu zemyuziyamu, kodwa amathuluzi abukhoma ukucabanga nokuphendula izinselele zenkathi ngayinye. Isiko elifanayo liyahunyushwa kabusha, ligxekwe, futhi lilungiswe kabusha ekuphenduleni imibuzo emisha eyayingekho ngaphambili.
Isifinyezo sezigaba zomlando eziyinhloko
Ukuze sinikeze umbono obanzi wemisinga enethonya elikhulu, kuyasiza ukukhumbula izigaba ezinkulu zefilosofi yaseNtshonalanga:
- UkugugaAma-Pre-Socrates, amaPlatonism, ama-Aristotle, ama-Epicureanism, amaStoicism, amaCynicism, amaSkepticism. Babekhathazekile ngemvelo kanye nemvelaphi yezinto, ngokuziphatha kanye nezombusazwe, kanye nokufuna injongo yokuphila.
- Iminyaka ephakathiI-Patristics kanye ne-Scholasticism, amafilosofi angaphansi kakhulu kwemfundiso yenkolo, lapho ukholo lubaluleke khona kodwa ingxoxo iqhutshwa ngesizathu.
- Iminyaka yesimanjeUbuNtu, ubuhlakani, ubuhlakani, ukuKhanyiselwa, i-idealism, i-contractualism. Isikhungo somcabango sishintshela kumuntu (i-anthropocentrism); ingqondo ibekwa ngaphezu kokholo kanti ulwazi lufundwa ngendlela ehlelekile (i-epistemology).
- Iminyaka yesimanjeI-Positivism, i-Marxism, i-existentialism, i-analytic philosophy, i-phenomenology, i-continental philosophy, i-critical theory, i-postmodernism, kanye ne-postcolonial currents konke kuyahlolwa. Izinkinga zomphakathi, inhlalakahle, ubuwena, kanye nobudlelwano phakathi kolimi, amandla, kanye nefilosofi kuyabhekwana.
Lezi zigaba zibanzi futhi imisinga eminingi ibanzi ukugqagqana kwesikhathi kanye nasemibonweni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ifilosofi yanamuhla iyaqhubeka nokukhula ngezindlela ezintsha nezindlela ezisebenzisana nemikhakha efana ne-neuroscience, ubuchwepheshe, i-ecology, kanye nezifundo zobulili.
Ukuqonda izindlela eziyinhloko zefilosofi kusenza siqaphele ukuthi izingxoxo eziningi zamanje mayelana neqiniso, isayensi, ezombusazwe, ukuziphatha, kanye nobunikazi zinezimpande ezijulile kulezi zingxoxo zomlando. Ukuhlola la masiko akuyona nje into yokufunda: kuyindlela hlola impilo yakho, ukucacisa izinkolelo zomuntu siqu nokuqinisa amakhono okucabanga ngokujulile lapho ebhekene nomhlaba oyinkimbinkimbi, oxubile futhi oshintsha njalo.